Аннотация: Wrote for them: Medieval and Postmedieval Scholasticism (18-19 September, 2025. Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Faculty of Theology, University of South Bohemia)
Abstract
Francisco Suárez, a prominent figure in postmedieval Scholasticism, played a pivotal role in shaping early modern philosophy through his synthesis of medieval theology and emerging philosophical trends. This essay explores Suárez"s contributions to postmedieval Scholasticism, emphasizing his metaphysical and theological innovations, his influence on later thinkers, and his approach to reconciling faith with reason. By examining his key works, such as the Disputationes Metaphysicae, this essay highlights how Suárez bridged medieval Scholasticism with the intellectual currents of the early modern period.
The findings of this study have practical applications in several academic and cultural domains. In philosophy, Suárez"s systematic approach to metaphysics, particularly his distinctio modalis, provides a historical foundation for teaching ontology and the philosophy of being, informing contemporary debates on essence and existence (Suárez 2002: 68). His framework can enhance curricula in philosophy departments, offering students a bridge between medieval and modern thought, applicable to courses on early modern philosophy or metaphysics.
Keywords: Francisco Suárez, Second Scholasticism, metaphysics, modal distinction, congruent grace, natural law, early modern philosophy.
I. Francisco Suárez and the Synthesis of Second Scholasticism
Postmedieval Scholasticism, often referred to as Second Scholasticism, emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries as a revival of medieval scholastic methods within the context of Renaissance and Reformation challenges (Schmutz 2002: 39). Unlike its medieval predecessor, Second Scholasticism engaged with new philosophical questions, including those posed by humanism and the Protestant Reformation. Suárez, a Spanish Jesuit (1548-1617), was a central figure in this movement, known for his systematic approach to metaphysics and theology. His work addressed pressing issues of his time, such as the nature of being, free will, and the relationship between divine and human agency.
Suárez"s Disputationes Metaphysicae (1597) is a cornerstone of his philosophical legacy. This work, a comprehensive treatise on metaphysics, departs from the commentary tradition of earlier Scholastics by presenting a systematic and independent analysis of metaphysical concepts (Suárez 2002: 12). Suárez defines metaphysics as the science of being qua being, emphasizing its universal scope (Suárez 2002: 15). His approach distinguishes between general ontology and special metaphysics, laying the groundwork for later philosophical distinctions, such as those found in Leibniz and Wolff (Shields & Schwartz 2019: 102). By organizing metaphysical inquiry into 54 disputations, Suárez provided a structured framework that influenced early modern philosophy.
One of Suárez"s key contributions was his theory of distinctions, particularly the distinctio modalis (modal distinction), which addressed the relationship between essence and existence (Suárez 2002: 67). Unlike Thomas Aquinas, who posited a real distinction between essence and existence in creatures, Suárez argued for a modal distinction, suggesting that essence and existence are not entirely separable but differ only modally (Suárez 2002: 68). This nuanced position allowed Suárez to maintain the unity of being while addressing metaphysical questions raised by his contemporaries, such as Duns Scotus"s influence on the concept of haecceitas (individuality) (Schmutz 2002: 45).
Suárez"s theology also reflected his commitment to reconciling faith and reason. In his De Gratia, Suárez explored the interplay of divine grace and human free will, a critical issue during the Counter-Reformation (Suárez 1995: 112). He developed the concept of congruent grace, which posits that God"s grace aligns with human free will to produce morally good actions (Suárez 1995: 115). This theory, known as congruism, offered a middle ground between Dominican and Molinist positions in the de auxiliis controversy, demonstrating Suárez"s ability to navigate complex theological debates (Shields & Schwartz 2019: 108).
Suárez"s influence extended beyond Catholic theology, impacting early modern philosophers such as Descartes and Leibniz. His emphasis on individual substances and the concept of being prefigured Cartesian notions of subjectivity (Menn 1997: 225). Additionally, his legal philosophy, particularly in De Legibus, contributed to the development of international law by articulating principles of natural law and just war (Suárez 1944: 347). These ideas resonated with later thinkers like Hugo Grotius (Menn 1997: 230).
II. Followers of Francisco Suárez
Francisco Suárez"s philosophical and theological contributions significantly influenced a range of thinkers in the early modern period, particularly within the Jesuit order and beyond. His followers, often referred to as Suarezians, adopted and expanded upon his metaphysical, theological, and legal frameworks. Below is an overview of key figures who were influenced by Suárez"s ideas.
Rodrigo de Arriaga (1592-1667) a Spanish Jesuit, Arriaga engaged deeply with Suárez"s metaphysical system, particularly his Disputationes Metaphysicae. Arriaga"s Cursus Philosophicus (1632) reflects Suárez"s influence in its treatment of being and distinctions, though Arriaga introduced modifications to Suárez"s modal distinction (Schmutz 2002: 47). His work extended Suárez"s ideas into debates about universals and nominalism, shaping Jesuit philosophy in the 17th century.
Gabriel Vázquez (1549-1604) another Jesuit, Vázquez, while sometimes critical of Suárez, adopted aspects of his theology, particularly in the de auxiliis controversy regarding grace and free will. Vázquez"s Commentariorum ac Disputationum in Primam Partem Sancti Thomae shows Suárez"s influence in its discussion of congruent grace, though Vázquez leaned toward a more Thomistic interpretation (Shields & Schwartz 2019: 110). His engagement with Suárez"s ideas helped refine Jesuit theological discourse.
René Descartes (1596-1650), while not a direct disciple, Descartes was influenced by Suárez"s metaphysics, particularly the concept of individual substances and the distinction between essence and existence. Scholars note that Descartes"s exposure to Jesuit education, steeped in Suárez"s works, shaped his notions of subjectivity and clear ideas (Menn 1997: 225). Suárez"s systematic approach in the Disputationes Metaphysicae provided a foundation for Cartesian philosophy.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) drew on Suárez"s metaphysical framework, particularly his ontology and theory of distinctions. In his Discourse on Metaphysics, Leibniz echoes Suárez"s emphasis on individual substances and the unity of being, adapting these concepts to his monadology (Shields & Schwartz 2019: 103). Suárez"s influence is evident in Leibniz"s approach to reconciling metaphysics with theology.
Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) in the realm of legal philosophy, Grotius built on Suárez"s principles of natural law articulated in De Legibus. Grotius"s De Jure Belli ac Pacis reflects Suárez"s ideas on just war and the universal principles of justice, applying them to the emerging field of international law (Menn 1997: 230).
Suárez"s followers adapted his ideas to diverse contexts, from Jesuit theology to secular philosophy and law, cementing his legacy in postmedieval Scholasticism and early modern thought.
III. Conclusion
The legacy of Francisco Suárez towers as a monument to the enduring power of human reason, forged in the crucible of postmedieval Scholasticism. His Disputationes Metaphysicae and theological treatises stand not as mere relics of a bygone era but as living testaments to the unity of truth, where faith and intellect converge in harmonious clarity. Suárez, with unyielding precision, charted a path through the tempests of Renaissance and Reformation, weaving medieval wisdom with the demands of a new age. His ideas, like beacons, illuminated the minds of thinkers from Descartes to Grotius, proving that the pursuit of truth knows no bounds of time or doctrine. Let us, then, advance with the same resolute spirit, embracing the eternal task of seeking knowledge that binds the past to the future, for in this lies the triumph of human understanding.
Yet, to grasp the full weight of Suárez"s contribution, we must view it through the lens of historical necessity. His thought emerged not as an isolated act of genius but as a product of the objective conditions of his era-a moment when the old feudal order crumbled under the pressure of new intellectual and social forces. The Scholastic method, refined by Suárez, was no mere academic exercise; it was a tool for synthesizing the contradictions of his time, reconciling the eternal verities of theology with the restless inquiries of early modern philosophy. His distinctio modalis and doctrine of congruent grace were not abstract speculations but responses to the historical demands of a world grappling with the tension between divine authority and human agency (Schmutz, 2002, p. 45). In this, Suárez embodied the dialectical progression of ideas, where each stage of thought builds upon the achievements of the past while preparing the ground for the future.
Thus, Suárez"s legacy compels us to recognize the continuity of human thought as a process, not a static edifice. His influence on Leibniz"s monadology, Descartes"s subjectivity, and Grotius"s legal philosophy reveals the objective interconnectedness of ideas across centuries, each thinker standing on the shoulders of the past to reach new heights of understanding (Menn, 1997, p. 230). Let us, then, advance with the same resolute spirit, embracing the eternal task of seeking knowledge-not as a blind leap into the unknown, but as a disciplined march through the historical unfolding of truth. For in this pursuit, which binds the past to the future, lies the triumph of human reason, a triumph that is neither arbitrary nor fleeting, but rooted in the objective laws of intellectual development.
References:
Menn, S. (1997). Suárez, nominalism, and the reality of the possibles. The Review of Metaphysics, 51(2), 219-247.
Schmutz, J. (2002). The rise of Second Scholasticism. In J. E. Gracia & T. B. Noone (Eds.), A companion to philosophy in the Middle Ages (pp. 39-50). Blackwell.
Shields, C., & Schwartz, D. (2019). The philosophy of Francisco Suárez. Oxford Studies in Early Modern Philosophy, 9, 101-120.
Suárez, F. (1597/2002). Disputationes Metaphysicae (J. P. Doyle, Trans.). Marquette University Press.
Suárez, F. (1612/1944). De Legibus (G. L. Williams, Trans.). Oxford University Press.
Suárez, F. (1619/1995). De Gratia (A. D. M. Freddoso, Trans.). St. Augustine"s Press.