Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение
"Московский государственный лингвистический университет"
Факультет гуманитарных и прикладных наук
Кафедра грамматики и истории английского языка
Выпускная квалификационная работа на тему: " Динамика функционирования предикативных конструкций в англоязычной прозе."
по направлению подготовки (специальности) 031201 "Теория и методика преподавания иностранных языков и культур"
Профессор к-ры лексикологии
английского языка Баринова И.В.
Зав. Кафедрой: д. филол. н.,
MINISTRY FOR EDUCATION AND SCIENCE
OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
FEDERAL STATE EDUCATIONAL ESTABLISHMENT
MOSCOW STATE LINGUISTIC UNIVERSITY
Faculty of Humanities and Applied Sciences
Department of Grammar and History of the English Language
"The dynamics of functioning of predicative constructions in English prose/"
031201 - Theory and Methods of Teaching Foreign Languages and Cultures (major in Linguistics and Teaching)
Student: Pytieva E.Y.
Group 0-9-48
Academic Supervisor:
Kemova K.S.
Reviewer: Barinova I. V.,
Ph.D., Professor of the Department of Lexicology
Introduction.......................................................................................4
Chapter 1. The notion of "secondary predication" and classifications of predicative constructions...............................................................................6
1.1 Different approaches to the term of "secondary predication"....................6
1.2. The overview of the existing types of classifications of predicative constructions................................................................................8
1.3.The classification of predicative constructions..................................10
Chapter 2. The use of Objective and Subjective predicative constructions and
"for-to-infinitive" constructions in classical and modern English............... 19
2.1. The use of Objective Predicative Constructions in classical and modern English.................................................................................... 19
2.1.1. Causative verbs taking objective predicative constructions.................19
2.1.2. The semantics of the verb "have" taking Complex Object constructions................................................................................ 23
2.1.3.The construction "get + Complex Object" in classical and modern English.................................................................................... 27
2.1.4. Complex Object with the verbs denoting sense perception....................31
2.1.5. Complex Object with the verbs of mental activity.................................33
2.1.6. The peculiarities of the verb "find", observed in Complex Object..........34
2.2. The use of Subjective Predicative constructions in classical and modern English......................................................................................... 38
2.3. The use of "for-to-infinitive" constructions in classical and modern English...............................................................................................44
Chapter 3. Comparative analysis of Absolute Participial Constructions in classical and modern English literature................................................................................58
Chapter 4. Differences in the use of gerundial predicative constructions in classical and modern English............................................................................................68
Conclusions..................................................................................... 74
Bibliography............................................................................
Appendix 1..................................................................................
Appendix 2................................................................................
The topic of the present graduation paper is a comparative analysis of the predicative constructions with the Infinitive, Participle and Gerund in classical English literature and modern English. The predicative constructions are an essential structural part of the English language .It is common knowledge that any language is constantly changing. Since the 19th century the English language must have changed as well. Consequently, the predicative constructions, being an integral part of its structure, are likely to have changed .
The overall objective of the present research paper is to analyze and to compare the use of the predicative constructions with the infinitive, participle and gerund in classical English literature and in modern English .
The objective of the graduation paper presupposes the following tasks:
1) to investigate into the notion of predication and provide an overview of literature concerning predicative constructions with the infinitive, participle and gerund;
2) to reveal the frequency of predicative constructions in classical English literature and in modern English;
3) to single out and compare the semantic classes of verbs that take predicative constructions in both classical English literature and in modern English;
4) to reveal the peculiarities of their structure and use in accordance with the context and the way the verbs involved in the predicative structure behave;
5) to reveal changes in the use of predicative constructions and identify typical patterns of their use.
The paper consists of an introduction, two theoretical chapters, practical part and the conclusions.
The first chapter is devoted to the notion of "secondary predication", contains an overview of linguistic literature dealing with this notion, different approaches to this term and to the notion of "predicative construction" as well.
The second chapter deals with the existing classifications of the predicative constructions.
The practical part is concerned with the comparative analysis of the use of predicative constructions in samples of classical English literature and modern English ,the tendencies in changing of their structure and in the semantic meanings of the verbs involved due to the context.
The novelty of the paper consists in the fact that it is comparative analysis of predicative constructions in classical and modern English with the aim of revealing the frequency and changes in their use, the changes in their inner structure, due to the context; the changes in the semantic variety of the verbs involved.
The reason why I chose this topic is the fact that predicative constructions, being an integral part of its structure, are likely to have changed as well. In modern English literature we have come across samples of these structures that are not described and identified in the modern grammar books. Moreover, the question of their classification and the notion of "secondary predication" is still disputable.
The notion of "secondary predication" and classifications of predicative constructions.
The aim of the present chapter is to describe the notion of "secondary predication", to introduce different approaches to this term and to the notion of "predicative construction" as well. Besides, we show the existing types of classifications of predicative constructions . And finally we are going to present the classification given by A.N Kobrina, which we find the most relevant .
- --
Different approaches to the term of "secondary predication".
The whole complex of relations between the subject and the predicate expressed grammatically in a sentence is called predication. Predication is found in any sentence. But sometimes we may find sentences which contain not only grammatical predication but the phenomenon which is called secondary predication[2]. If we try to trace the development of the notion of "secondary predication", we will discover, it was O. Jespersen , who first proposed the term "nexus" for every predicative grouping of words, no matter by what grammatical means it is realized. He distinguished between a "junction", which is not a predicative group of words (e.g. reading man) and "nexus", which is one (e. g. the man reads). "If this term is adopted, we may say that in the sentence - I saw him run-there are two "nexuses": the primary one I saw, and the secondary him run. In a similar way, in the sentence I found him ill, the primary "nexus" would be I found, and the secondary him ill". In other words, according to the majority of modern grammarians, sharing the notion of secondary predication, it was O. Jespersen who first spoke about "primary" and "secondary predication"[10]. The next steps were: In 1941 A.A. Shakhmatov developed the theory of "incomplete predication". Fourteen years later, in 1955 the whole chapter of Bally's work was devoted to the Absolute Participial Constructions. Then A.M. Peshkovsky mentioned these structures calling them "structures with an additional message"(1958). Finally,in 1959 F.I. Buslaev used the term "reduced sentence" to characterize such structures. Besides, some grammarians called them "the sentence complicated with the constructions with the verbals", which have their own subject. In 1960 there appeared the theory of semantic and syntactic "gradual, stepwise convergence" of self- separate sentences coming into contact with each other, developed by G. Paul [6] .Thus, this point has often become the top point of the linguistic discussions. As far as our viewpoint is concerned, we come to the conclusion that the term "predicative constructions", based on the relations of "secondary predication" given by A.N. Kobrina expresses in the most precise way the essence of these structures [2]. According to A.N. Kobrina, in Modern English there are several ways of expressing secondary predication .One of them is what is frequently termed the complex object, as seen in the sentences : I saw him run; We heard them sing; The public watched the team play; I want you to come tomorrow, etc. The primary predication in the first sentence is between the subject I and the predicate saw: I is the doer of the action expressed by the predicate verb. But in this sentence there is one more predication, that between him and run: the verb run expresses the action performed by him. This predication is obviously a secondary one: him is not the subject of a sentence or a clause, and run is not its predicate. In this case we can speak only of logical predication, not grammatical one. And therefore the nominal part of this construction may be called only the secondary subject while the verbal part - the secondary predicate and the relations between them are called the relations of secondary predication. The constructions which are based on the relations of the secondary predication are called predicative constructions [2]. Predicative constructions are usually built up with the help of verbals and they are used in different syntactical functions. Their peculiarities consist in the fact that they serve to express not simple parts of a sentence but complex ones. But, according to A.N. Kobrina, on the syntactic function of the group him run (or of its elements) views vary. The main difference is between those who think that him run is a syntactic unit, and those who think that him is one part of the sentence, and run another. If the phrase is taken as a syntactic unit, it is very natural to call it a complex object: it stands in an object relation to the predicate verb saw and consists of two elements. If, on the other hand , the phrase him run is not considered to be a syntactic unit, its first element is the object, and its second element is conveniently termed the objective predicative. The choice between the two interpretations remains arbitrary and neither of them can be proved to be the only right one.
- --
The overview of the existing types of classifications of predicative constructions.
Examining linguistic literature concerned with this issue, we come to the conclusion, that there exist a lot of classifications, based on different viewpoints, that we have already mentioned. Among the authors, sharing the notion "predicative construction", we are going to introduce the following classifications:
1. V.L. Kaushanskaya brings out 3 predicative constructions with the infinitive:
1) the Objective-with-the- Infinitive Construction;
2) the Subjective Infinitive Construction;
3) the for-to- Infinitive Construction.
She divides the predicative constructions with the participle into:
1) the Objective Participial Construction;
2) the Subjective Participial Construction;
3) theNominative Absolute Participial Construction;
4) the Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction. In addition, she points out the Absolute constructions without a participle:
1) the Nominative Absolute Construction;
2) the Prepositional Absolute Construction.
This classification is widely used. But, we think that the notion of "secondary predication" is worth paying particular attention to as being the essence of predicative constructions.
2. According to Kobrina A.N., predicative constructions comprise the following structures:
1) subjective predicative construction;
2) objective predicative construction;
3) nominative absolute predicative constructions;
4) for-to-infinitive constructions;
5) gerundial complexes.
The first two constructions have permanent functions in the sentence, the functions of the last three may vary. According to the nature of the second part of the constructions (verbal or non-verbal) all the constructions (complexes) fall into two large classes: verbal constructions and non-verbal constructions.
Verbal constructions fall into two groups:
1. those containing an infinitive;
2. those containing a participle.
The infinitive constructions are:
1) the objective infinitive construction;
2) the subjective infinitive construction;
3) the for-to-infinitive construction;
4) the absolute nominative infinitive construction.
The participial constructions are:
1) the objective participial construction;
2) the subjective participial construction;
3) the nominative absolute participial construction;
4) the prepositional absolute participial construction.
A.N Kobrina views these constructions in terms of secondary predication We consider her classification to be more grammatically precise and full. For this reason we will thoroughly describe it.
3. Drosdova T.Y. offers the following classification.
1. The Infinitive Constructions:
1) the Complex Object;
2) the Complex Subject;
3) the For-to -Infinitive Construction.
She points out the Absolute Participial Construction, speaking about predicative constructions with the participle, and defines two groups of the Gerundial Construction as it was done in previous two cases of the classification. This classification does not express the grammatical essence of predicative constructions. She does not mention "secondary predication" to be the essence of these structures. The author of this classification does not give a complete description of this phenomenon of language. Her classification is based only on their functions in a sentence. Each classification has its certain drawbacks. We consider the classification given by A.N. Kobrina to be more complete, than the classifications given by V.L. Kaushanskaya and T.Y. Drosdova, as she gives a definition of the term "predicative construction" and manages to classify them, paying special attention to their inner structure based on secondary predication. Now we present the classification of predicative constructions given by A.N. Kobrina in a more detailed way and describe the groups of verbs with which it works.
1.3. The classification of predicative constructions.
According to A.N. Kobrina, predicative constructions are structures intermediate between a phrase and a clause. Unlike phrases they contain two words which semantically are in subject-predicate relations to one another, as one (the nominal part) denotes the doer of the action or the bearer of the state or quality, while the other (the predicated part) may be either verbal (an infinitive, a participle, a gerund) or non-verbal (an adjective, a stative, an adverb, a noun).But unlike clauses the subject-predicate relations in complexes are not grammatically explicit, that is there is no finite verb-form in them, functioning as the verbal predicate or as a link-verb of a nominal predicate. Therefore constructions have neither real subject, nor real predicate [2].
We are going to speak about objective and subjective predicative constructions.
1.3.1. The objective predicative constructions .
This predicative construction functions as a complex object. It consists of a nominal part and a part which stands in subject-predicate relations to the first part. The nominal part is a noun or a noun-pronoun in the common case or a personal pronoun in the objective case. The second element of the construction is a verbal (an infinitive, Participle I, Participle II).
Accordingly, the following objective constructions can be distinguished:
1) the objective with the infinitive construction;
2) the objective with participle I (or participle II) construction.
1. The objective predicative constructions of both types are used after definite semantic groups of the verbs :
1) Verbs of sense perception (to see, to watch, to hear, to feel, to observe, to notice), with bare infinitive or participle1 and participle 2 . These verbs are used only in their direct meaning in this predicative construction.
e.g. They felt the earth shake under their feet. I felt tears running down my cheeks. ( We heard the door open and shut. I smelt something burning.
2)Verbs of wish and intention (to wish, to want, to desire, to choose, to prefer, should/would like, to intend, to mean). He would like you to see him in his office (An infinitive is used with particle "to"). Nobody wanted him going there alone. (P1) Nobody wanted it done in such a way. (P2) He prefers the work done immediately.(P2)
3)Verbs of mental activity (to think, to suppose, to consider, to believe, to know, to find, to expect, to imagine, to understand, to assume, to acknowledge, to declare, to trust, to pronounce etc). I know myself to be rather slow.(An infinitive with particle "to" is used). At first she thought Johnny killed. (P2).
4) Causative verbs (to make, to have, to let) take a complex object with a bare infinitive. The verb to get takes a complex object with a to -infinitive as well as the verbs to order, to induce, to force, to bring oneself, to motion/gesture, arrange, to fix.
e.g. He gestured to the visitor to sit down. The captain ordered the ship to be unloaded. How do you think the men would have their wounds dressed, get themselves washed, have their beds made if nobody worked on a Sunday?
a) The construction "have someone do something" has the following meaning: to ensure (to cause, request, ask) that someone performs some action.
b) The construction "have something done is widely used in describing the actions performed for somebody by anyone else : I had my hair cut yesterday. She had the door painted and new lock installed The same construction may have the meaning of the action completed: She had all her money stolen. (Someone stole all her mone).We didn't have all these problems solved.(We didn't solve all these problems). "Someone" may also be used instead of "something": She had him arrested. (She caused the police to arrest him). You had me worried. (I was worried about you. You made me worry). He had us laughing. (We were laughing because of him. He made us laugh).
5) Verbs of emotion and attitude (to like, to dislike, to love, to hate, cannot/could not bear). I can't bear people to be unhappy or upset . I hate you going to discos. (P1) I `d like this letter sent immediately. (P2)
6) Besides, the objective with the infinitive construction may be used with a few verbs as their indirect non-recipient object. These verbs are to wait (for), arrange for, leave for, to rely (on), to listen (to), to look (for), to count (upon) and etc. All of them except the verb to listen take the infinitive with the particle to. With the verb to listen a bare infinitive is used.
e.g. Can I really count upon him to undertake the job? I was relying on him to put things right. I listened to them talk about me.
Although, the objective with participle I (or participle II) construction takes the following verbs as well: the verbs to find, to leave, to discover, to catch.
e.g. I left him sitting in his favourite armchair. I discovered the picture still being packed. The father caught Bob smoking in the bathroom. I found everything done to my liking.
1.3.2. The subjective predicative constructions:
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The subjective construction with an infinitive;
2) The subjective construction with a participle 1 or a participle 2.
The construction consists of a noun (or a noun-pronoun) in the common case or a personal pronoun in the nominative case and an infinitive or a participle (1,2). The peculiarity of the construction is that the first element is separated from the second one by a finite verb-form which together with the infinitive or a participle (1,2) forms a compound verbal predicate of double orientation, whereas the nominal part of the construction forms the subject of the sentence. The construction does not function as one part of the sentence but falls into two parts each functioning separately. Semantically of these two parts of the predicate only the second one refers to the subject, as only this part denotes either the action or the state of the person or non-person expressed by the subject. Thus in the sentence: He is said to know five languages . He knows five languages that is important. In between the subject and the infinitive or a participle (1,2) there is a part of the predicate expressed by a finite verb which grammatically indicates subject-predicate relations. However, semantically this finite verb cannot serve as the predicate of the subject, as it denotes some comment, or estimate, or judgement, or conclusion, or attitude to the action or state expressed by the infinitive[2]. Both the subjective with an infinitive and the subjective with a participle (1,2) constructions are used with a limited number of finite verbs either in the passive or in the active voice:
Verbs used in the passive voice fall info four groups:
- --
verbs of sense perception (hear, see, observe, watch, etc.). When used in the passive voice they are followed by a to-infinitive. They express the idea of evidence. The same idea is also rendered by some other verbs in the passive voice (such as find, discover):
e.g. He was seen driving away from the street casually accident. (P1) Somebody was heard working his way through the thick bushes. (P1) He was found killed. (P2)
- --
verbs of mental perception (think, know, mean, believe, expect, consider, assume, presume, suppose) With this construction these verbs denote different shades of expectation, opinion, judgement:
e.g. The Paliament is expected to introduce some changes into the laws. Programmed instruction is considered to have many advantages. The work was considered finished (P2).
3) verbs of saying and reporting (say, report, declare, predict, etc):
e.g. Blackberries are said to have a lot of vitamins. A new star was reported to have appeared in the East. The schoolchildren were reported missing when they didn't come home for dinner(P1).
2) Causative verbs (cause, make, order, allow, etc.) These verbs are mostly used in the subjective construction with an infinitive:
e.g. Jule was made to repeat her words. The doctor was ordered to change his shift. No dam was allowed to be built in this part of the country.
The following verbs ace used in the active voice only in the subjective construction with an infinitive:
- Verbs expressing subjective or personal attitude to facts and their evaluation (to seem, to appear, to happen, to chance, to turn out, etc.):
e.g. The structure seemed to have been properly designed. Your friend turned out to be stronger than we expected. Everybody appeared to be enjoying themselves.
- Modal phrases expressing different shades of probability or certainty (to be (un) likely, to be sure, to be certain, to be bound);
adjectives or nouns with the link-verb to be expressing estimate of different kind (pleasant, hard, easy, difficult, terrible, apt, etc.);
- The modal phrases to be apt, to be bound generally refer to habitual actions or states: We are certain to come to an agreement. You are not likely to believe my story. A strawberry, unless fresh-picked, is bound to exude juice. Chrisis is apt to strike suddenly like influenza.
--
1.3.3. The absolute nominative constructions.
These constructions are called `absolute' because they are not dependent on any other part of the including sentence, though they cannot be used without it, as they lack a finite verb form and thus have no predicate. From the point of view of their transformational possibility, absolute constructions fall into two types, verbal and non-verbal ones.
1) The Absolute Nominative Participial Constructions. These constructions take both participle 1 and participle 2.
а)The Nominative Absolute Participial 1Construction
The absolute nominative with participle I construction is generally used as an adverbial of reason or of attendant circumstances, although sometimes it is an adverbial of time. Occasionally, especially with the verbs to permit or to fail, it is an adverbial of condition. The weather being unusually mild at that time for the season of the year, there was no sleighing (of reason). With a yell, he sprang back, a sweat coming on his skin (of attendant circumstances). The goods having been examined, the customs officer left the ship (of time). Circumstances permitting, they will be through with it by the end of May (condition).
b)The Absolute Nominative Participial II Construction is usually an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances or time:
e.g. "Bye," he said, and walked away, his farewell unanswered(of attendant circumstances). Dinner served, Mrs Marlow rang the bell(of time).
2)Prepositional Absolute Participial Constructions.
There are prepositional absolute constructions with participle I or II. All function mainly as adverbials of attendant circumstances, although sometimes they may be other adverbials. All of them can be transformed into clauses.
- --
The Prepositional Absolute Construction with Participle I.
e.g. With his head aching from the slap of the bullet and the blood dripping over the ear, he went over to the Frenchman.
b) The Prepositional Absolute Construction with Participle2.
e.g. A Negro boy lay on the pavement, with his throat cut.
3) Absolute Constructions without a Participle.
a) The Nominative Absolute Construction. It is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of time, of reason or attendant circumstances.
e.g. Breakfast over, he went to his counting house (of time). She stood under the tree, her head full of strange ideas (of attendant circumstances). Her heart full of despair, she could not say a wor (of reason). This time the fish attacked from below. It hurtled up under the woman, jaws agape (of manner).
b) The Prepositional Absolute Construction.
e.g. He stood there trembling, with his face ablaze (of attendant circumstances). He turned away, with his hand still up (of attendant circumstances). They marched towards the square, with little flags in their hands (manner) .
1.3.4. The for-to-infinitive constructions.
The for-to-infinitive construction is expressed by a noun in the common case or a personal pronoun in the objective case and an infinitive with the particle to. It is introduced by the preposition for.
1) The "for-to-infinitive "construction may function as different parts of the sentence:
e.g. It was practically impossible for them to meet anybody (subject). For one to spend a summer with them was a wonderful experience (subject). That is not for me to decide (predicative). I watched for him to appear through the bushes (object). She gave orders for everyone to stop packing (attribute). I rang for you to show the lady out (adverbial modifier of purpose). The chance was too good for Jack to miss it(adverbial modifier of consequence). The real cause of the explosion was evident enough for everyone to discuss it(adverbial modifier of consequence).
3) The for-to-infinitive construction is commonly used after the following verbs: to ask for, to hope, to wait for, to pay for , to look for, to arrange, to suit, to take[4]: They asked for the design to be ready by September. Can you arrange for the goods to be shipped on Friday? When will it suit you for us to phone?
2) The for-to-infinitive construction is not used after the verbs: to like, to hate, to mean, to intend[4].
3) This predicative construction is used after a noun: an aim, an idea, a plan, a need, a mistake, a request, shame[4]: The company's main aim is for the sales to be increased. There is no need for you to get up early on Sunday.
4) The for-to-infinitive construction also used after the adjectives expressing feelings: anxious, eager, willing, delighted, reluctant [4]. They are anxious for us to see the results of their work. We were eager for the concert to be a success. She is willing for him to be invited to the party.
5) The for-to-infinitive construction is used after the adjectives expressing possibility, necessity, importance, frequency, urgency, benefit in the sentences with introductory "it" [4]:
e.g. It is impossible for the work to be completed. It is necessary for them to start shipping. It is important for them to get married in September.
6) This construction is not used after the adjectives likely and probable.
7) This predicative construction is often used after indefinite pronouns, such as: something, anything, nothing, somebody, anybody, nobody, somewhere, anywhere, nowhere:
e.g. Have you got something for me to type? Is there anybody for me to play chess with in the village? You must find somewhere for her to practice the piano.
8) After the words "too" and "enough": Today the water is too cold for the swimmers to swim long distances. I explained enough for him to understand what he must do.
1.3.5. The gerundial predicative constructions.
The gerundial predicative construction is a predicative complex in which the nominal part is generally a noun/noun-pronoun in the possessive case or a possessive pronoun. Sometimes, however, mostly in informal speech, it may be a noun/noun-pronoun in the common case or a personal pronoun in the objective case. This predicative constructions may function as different parts of the sentence:
e.g. Your doing nothing won't help anybody (subject). Is it worth while your quarrelling all the time? (subject). The only way out will be his taking the job (predicative). She liked his worrying about his wife (object). The prospect of someone else getting a job moved them to strong moral indignation (attribute). After his being away for some time the crisis came( adverbial modifier of time). The car slid away without my having to say anything( adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances). In spite of it being cold the bushes swarmed with insects( adverbial modifier of concession).
These examples show the use of gerundial construction with noun/noun-pronoun in the common case or a personal pronoun in the objective case:
e.g. Do you mind me smoking? (=Do you mind my smoking?) She was angry at John trying to lie to her. (=She was angry at John's trying to lie to her). Forgive me my (me) ringing you up so early in the morning. Nothing shall prevent our(us) from doing our duty. You ought to pardon his(him) contradicting you.
The use of Objective and Subjective predicative constructions and "for-to-infinitive" constructions in classical and modern English.
This chapter presents the results of our research work performed on the basis of the framework outlined in Chapter 1. In the research chapter we focus on the comparative analysis of the predicative constructions with verbals in classical and modern English. For our analysis we studied 984 pages, all in all, of the works of 6 well known authors of modern English literature, 2 modern film-scripts and the works of 5 famous authors, the representatives of classical English Literature. The general amount of the examples of predicative constructions under analysis is 1497,including 900 samples of Complex Object, 265 examples of Complex Subject, 121 examples of the Gerundial constructions , 154 examples of Absolute Participial Constructions and Absolute Nominative- and Absolute Prepositional constructions, 57 examples of "for-to- infinitive" constructions.
2.1.The use of Objective Predicative Constructions in classical and modern English.
The Objective Predicative Constructions comprising the objective with the infinitive constructions and the objective with participle(1,2)constructions, function in a sentence as Complex Object. Therefore, the term Complex Object stands for both types of these objective predicative constructions. According to our investigation. the general number of the examples of Complex Object under analysis is 900. Although Complex Object is the most frequent predicative construction to be met both in classical literature and in modern English, we come to the conclusion, that in up-to-date English literature it proves to appear twice as often as in the samples of the classical literature(605 and 295 respectively).
2.1.1.Causative verbs taking objective predicative constructions.
According to our data, the most numerous group of verbs included in the Complex Object proves to be the group of causative verbs, such as :to make, to let, to force, to get, to have, to push, to cause, to bring ,to press, to persuade ,to enable, to run, to provoke, to tease ,to dog, to induce, to allow..etc. The general number of examples with causative verbs involved in Complex Object is 435. They make up half of the total number of samples of Complex Object constructions. While studying, we paid attention to the fact, that in the variety of causative verbs included in this structure (Table1), the most common verbs appeared to be the verbs "make " and "let" both in the samples of modern and classical English (Table 1)
|
|
The frequency of causative verbs involved in Complex Object
|
|
verb
|
Modern English
|
The classical English literature.
|
|
1.make
|
96
|
51
|
|
2.let
|
106
|
35
|
|
3.have
|
32
|
10
|
|
4.get
|
23
|
7
|
|
5.allow
|
4
|
11
|
|
6.force
|
6
|
1
|
|
7.tell
|
6
|
4
|
|
8.ask
|
7
|
6
|
|
9.cause
|
3
|
---
|
|
10.urge
|
1
|
3
|
|
11.induce
|
|
4
|
|
12.enable
|
1
|
3
|
|
13.bring
|
3
|
3
|
|
14.warn
|
3
|
|
|
15.knock
|
2
|
|
|
16.spot
|
2
|
|
|
17.run
|
2
|
|
|
18.forfeit
|
|
1
|
|
19.threaten
|
|
1
|
|
20.defy
|
|
1
|
|
21.provoke
|
|
1
|
|
22.persuade
|
3
|
3
|
|
23.entreat
|
|
1
|
|
24.beg
|
|
2
|
|
25.set
|
|
2
|
We also found that the pair of verbs that rank second in our statistics are the verbs "have" and "get" both in classical and in modern English. In modern English they appear 3 times as often as in classical English literature.(Table1) After these verbs , in terms of frequency, come the verbs "allow", "ask" and "tell". Some of the verbs in our samples do not appear in modern English ("forfeit", "defy"," induce", "provoke"), some are not found in classical English literature ("run", "spot", "dog", "warn", "cause" - in the causative meaning).
The following examples show the diversity of causative meanings expressed by objective predicative constructions in classical English Literature:
1) "He had forfeited his right to be there." (J. Golsworthy);
2) "It caused their wives and children to attend with some regularity the more fashionable churches of the Metropolis." (J. Golsworthy);
3) In spite of his love for his son, in spite of an instinct, partly constitutional, partly the result, as in thousands of his class, of the continual handling and watching of affairs, prompting him to judge conduct by results rather than by principle, there was at the bottom of his heart a sort of uneasiness." (J. Golsworthy);
4) James had always been exceedingly liberal to his children, and the consciousness of this made him feel it all the more deeply. (J. Golsworthy);
5) On his approaching them soon afterwards, though without seeming to have any intention of speaking, Miss Lucas defied her friend to mention such a subject to him; which immediately provoking Elizabeth to do it, she turned to him and said:"Did you not think, Mr. Darcy, that I expressed myself uncommonly well just now, when I was teasing Colonel Forster to give us a ball at Meryton? ( J. Austen ); In the example above we can observe 3 Complex Objects with causative verbs within one short passage.
6) "Mr. Bingley was unaffectedly civil in his answer, and forced his younger sister to be civil also, and say what the occasion required. She performed her part indeed without much graciousness, but Mrs. Bennet was satisfied, and soon afterwards ordered her carriage. (J. Austen);
7) "And fearful, on the contrary, as being considered as intruding themselves needlessly long, she urged Jane to borrow Mr. Bingley's carriage immediately, and at length it was settled that their original design of leaving Netherfield that morning should be mentioned, and the request made". (J. Austen );
In the example below we can see 3 Complex Objects with causative verbs within one short passage:
8) "Why not? Every time, it's the same. When I got married you made me feel like it was something wrong. And my girls the same. You get them all crying and miserable the way you go on. Leave Alice alone. She's happy". She sighed, letting her eyes linger on the sunlit garden. "She'll marry next month. There's no reason to wait". (D. Lessing);
Thus, by investigating, we found complex object constructions in both direct and indirect speech. The constructions mostly appear as object to the predicate of the sentence, but sometimes we find them as objects to non-finite forms "prompting him to judge", "letting her eyes linger", "provoking Elizabeth to do it". Thus, in some cases the Complex Object appears to be included in participial phrases. We also can observe the examples filled up with Complex Objects with causative verbs within one short passage (5 and 8).
Besides, the semantic (lexical) variety of causative verbs in the samples of classical English literature is also worth paying attention to: forfeit, cause, prompt, hurt, threaten, make, let, allow, defy, provoke, tease, force, persuade, urge, get and etc. (Table 5). The diversity of causative meanings expressed by Complex Object constructions in modern English approximately the same with the exception of some verbs mentioned above and appearance some new verbs in causative meaning ("run", "spot", "dog", "warn", "cause"). But we have to emphasize that the frequency of Complex Object constructions with such verbs as "make", "let", "have", "get" has dramatically increased. (Table 1) Moreover, it is worth paying attention to the fact that the polysemy of such verbs as "have", "get", "find", "pop" is tending to increase. (Table 5)
2.1.2. The semantics of the verb `have" taking Complex Object constructions.
According to our data, the verb "have" among them is the most semantically diverse. The same tendency was also observed by K.S. Kemova [5]. Actually, this verb is very popular both in modern English and in classical English literature (Table 1). By studying, we revealed 32 samples of Complex Object with this verb in modern English and 10 samples-in classical English literature. In modern English the verb "have" taking a Complex Object construction occurred three times as often as in classical English literature. Therefore, we found the verb "have" to be worth speaking about in terms of the variety of meanings in different examples of Complex Object
1) The construction "have something done" (The description is in Chapter 1.3.1.).
This construction is very popular both in modern English and in classical English literature. The meanings of the verb "have" vary due to the context. By investigating, we single out 32 samples of this structure in modern English. In accordance with these samples, we found out, that due to the context, the meaning of the verb "have" in this construction "have something/somebody done" could vary. In some cases (a, b, c, d, g) the action is supposed to be done by somebody else for the person. Whereas in the other examples (e, f, h ,I, j, k, l) it denotes a completed action. So, more often in the samples of modern English it means the completed action. Let us introduce the examples in modern English accompanying them with semantic explanations:
a) "I want to have him tested as well, just to be sure" (Elizabeth Naughton) = I want someone to test him;
In this example the action will be performed by somebody else.
b) "Have the details mapped out for the test" (Elizabeth Naughton) = Force somebody to map out the details for the test;
In this case the action will be performed by somebody else.
c) "And if you say another word, Andrew here is gonna have you thrown out on your ass, OK?" ("Proposal") = Andrew will make somebody throw you out;
In this example the action will be done by someone else.
d) "I didn't need to have "okay" defined.."( Eric Segal) = I did not need someone to define "okay";
e) "The whips felt it would be a good thing to have a woman involved, and had hinted it would be a shame if she came to the end of her first parliamentary term with nothing to show for her undoubted ability and staunch support." (Edwina Currie) = The completed action: the woman has been involved. And it proves to be a good thing for them.
f) "You had it surgically removed (Prince of Tides) = The person was operated on by the surgeon. Something was removed already;
That means that the action is completed.
g) "l don't like being lied to.l don't like secrets. l could report you. Have your license suspended."( Prince of Tides) = I could make somebody suspend your license;
h) "I think you have it made" (Prince of Tides) = It is already done. A completed action;
i) "Several boys of about Harry's age had their noses pressed against a window with broomsticks in it. "Look" Harry heard one of them say, "the new Nimbus Two Thousand - fastest ever" (J.K. Rowling) = a completed action;
j) "We have a whole day planned for her and she needs to get ready" ("Proposal") = a completed action;
k) "I'd never had my own scripts bound," (Richard Matheson) = a completed action);
l) Jenny and I had classes the next day, Stony had the bank and so forth, and surely Tipsy would have something worthwhile planned for bright and early" (Eric Segal) = a completed action.
Our investigation of the 10 samples of this structure in classical English literature bring us to the conclusion that the verb "have" has following meanings:
a) "She requested to have a note sent, desiring her mother to visit Jane". (J. Austen) She asked somebody to send the note; In this case the action is supposed to be done by somebody else.
b) "You must not have it taken". (J. Austen) = You should not have taken it. But it was already done. The action is completed. с) "She prided herself on her dinner-parties; she took no less trouble to have her guests suitably assorted than to give them excellent food"; (W.S. Maugham) = She makes them match each other = a completed action);
d) "I had my room done" ( W.S. Maugham) = Somebody else carried out this work;
e) "He persuaded her to have a frock or two made according to his own design" (W.S. Maugham) = Somebody would make the frocks for her. The action should be done by somebody else.
f) "I have the Saturday Evening Post sent me". (S. Maugham) = Somebody has sent him Saturday Evening Post.
According to the meanings of the verb "have" in the construction "have something\somebody done" due to the context, in classical English literature, we found out, that in the samples (a, d, e, f) the action is to be done by somebody else for the person. While in the other samples (b, c ) the action is already completed. So, mostly it means the action carried out by somebody else.
2) The construction "have someone do something" usually has the following meaning: to ensure (to cause, force, make, persuade, request, ask) someone to perform the action (Chapter 1.3.1). We have the examples of such meanings both in the modern and in the classical English. In the samples of classical English literature:
a) "I must have you dance. I hate to see you standing about by yourself" (J. Austen);
b) "Have him placed on one side". (W.S. Maugham);
In accordance with these only two examples we found the verb "have" to mean "to persuade' (а) and "to order" (b).
In modern English:
a) The goblin read the letter carefully.
"Very well", he said, handing it back to Hagrid, "I will have Someone take you down to both vaults. Griphook!"- (J.K. Rowling) = cause;
b) "Have my lawyer set it up"( Elizabeth Naughton) = ask;
c) "Have them start drafting a press release"- ("Proposal") = order;
d) "Have security take his breakfront out of his office and put it in my conference room". ("Proposal") = order;
e) "We are desperate to have you stay!" ("Proposal") = ask;
f) "Actually, I'll have you know that that woman is there..." ("Proposal") = force;
g) "..and I forgot what it felt like to have people love you and make you breakfast and say.." ("Proposal") = make;
h) "We'll soon have you cut of here" (Terry Pratchett) = make.
According to the samples, the verb "have" means ask, order, force, make (similar causative meanings), more or less categoric. Besides, the number of samples has greatly increased in comparison with classical English literature(8).Moreover, we would like to underline that the majority of them comes from the film-scripts. That means, that it is typical to the oral speech.
To sum up, we studied the construction "have something/somebody done" both in classical English literature and in modern English. As it is found out, the meaning of the verb "have" in this construction of Complex object does vary due to the context. Our research revealed, that in the context the verb "have" in this construction could mean the action supposed to be done by somebody else (1) or the completed action (2). In classical English literature we came across half as many samples of this structure as in modern English (6 and 12, respectively). In these samples we identified the presence of both meanings of the verb in this construction. Besides, in most cases it means the action supposed to be done by somebody else.
The frequency of this construction in modern English is twice as high as in classical English literature (12). And, according to our data, mostly it means the completed action.
As far as the construction "have somebody do something" is concerned, we revealed that this construction is typical to modern English, because the majority of the samples we obtained come from the film-scripts.
While studying we met this construction in modern English 4 times as often as in classical English literature (20 and 5, respectively).
2.1.3.The construction " get+ Complex Object" in classical and modern English. The verb get is very popular in modern English as well as the verb have. According to our data (Table1), the number of the samples of Complex Object with this verb obtained in modern English is 23, that is more than three times as many as in classical English literature (7).Moreover, the verb "get" is also semantically diverse. We discovered this verb to occur in the following patterns: "get somebody to do something", "get somebody doing something" and "get somebody (something) done something".
Let us move to the examples:
1) The meaning of the construction "get somebody to do something" is to induce, to force, to persuade, to make somebody do something. We have a lot of these examples both in modern and classical English.
In modern English:
a) "She ran a hand over her hair. I'm overwhelmed. I have to think about Reed and what's best for him. And how to get Julia not to hate my guts." (Elizabeth Naughton) = to persuade;
b)We had a name already picked out. I mean, I had, and I think I got Jenny to agree finally = to induce somebody to do something; (Eric Segal);
c) "At the BBC, a presenter was trying to get Sir Nigel Boswood to wind up so that the programme could catch the declarations from South Warmingshire, North-West Warwickshire and Hampshire South West. Boswood was enjoying himself hugely".= induce (Edwina Currie);
d) "She had not the faintest idea how to respond, nor how to put it all in priority order. The answer was to get somebody else to do it". = to force (Edwina Currie);
e) "I asked you over a dozen times to get Frank to do Oprah, and you didn't do it". ("Proposal") = to force;
f) "You've got your whole lives to be together". ("Proposal") = to force;
g) "Well, it was the only way I could get you two to shut up and get us to the airport" ("Proposal") = to force.
As it is seen from the samples of this construction in modern English, the meaning of the verb `get" in this construction is similar to the meaning "force, to induce" somebody to do something.
In classical English literature:
a) "They said Kelso got some rascally adventurer, some Belgian brute, to insult his son-in-law in public--paid him, sir, to do it, paid him--and that the fellow spitted his man as if he had been a pigeon". (Oscar Wilde) = to induce;
b) "Not on your life", said the captain, who had now recovered his confidence. "I`ve fallen in myself before now. I remember, one evening I came back from shooting, and I fell in, gun and all. Now I get a boy to carry my gun for me". (W.S. Maugham) = to force.
We obtained only two samples of this construction in classical English literature with the same meaning of the verb "get".
2) The meaning of the construction "get somebody doing something" is close to the previous one. But the action is in progress: In modern English: "I've been going over my retirement plans recently, and it